{"id":2428,"date":"2025-09-08T03:12:45","date_gmt":"2025-09-08T03:12:45","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/flj-pcb.com\/?page_id=2428"},"modified":"2025-09-26T02:56:54","modified_gmt":"2025-09-26T02:56:54","slug":"impedance-control-pcb","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/flj-pcb.com\/vi\/pcb-manufacturer\/impedance-control-pcb\/","title":{"rendered":"Bo m\u1ea1ch in (PCB) c\u00f3 tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng \u2014 T\u1ed1i \u01b0u h\u00f3a t\u00ednh to\u00e0n v\u1eb9n t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u"},"content":{"rendered":"
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Ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng PCB l\u00e0 g\u00ec?<\/h2>

Ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng PCB c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn. Tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng n\u00e0y c\u00f2n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t. Tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t l\u00e0 tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng \u0111\u1eb7c tr\u01b0ng c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng truy\u1ec1n t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u00ecnh th\u00e0nh b\u1edfi c\u00e1c \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn PCB v\u00e0 c\u00e1c m\u1eb7t ph\u1eb3ng tham chi\u1ebfu c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang. Khi t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u t\u1ea7n s\u1ed1 cao truy\u1ec1n tr\u00ean c\u00e1c \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng truy\u1ec1n t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u PCB, \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y r\u1ea5t quan tr\u1ecdng. Tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t l\u00e0 y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 quan tr\u1ecdng \u0111\u1ec3 gi\u1ea3i quy\u1ebft c\u00e1c v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 v\u1ec1 t\u00ednh to\u00e0n v\u1eb9n t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u. T\u00ednh to\u00e0n v\u1eb9n t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u truy\u1ec1n \u0111i m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng b\u1ecb bi\u1ebfn d\u1ea1ng.<\/p>

\u0110i\u1ec7n tr\u1edf m\u1ea1ch \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh b\u1edfi k\u00edch th\u01b0\u1edbc v\u1eadt l\u00fd c\u1ee7a b\u1ea3ng m\u1ea1ch in (PCB) v\u00e0 v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u c\u00e1ch \u0111i\u1ec7n. \u0110\u01a1n v\u1ecb \u0111o l\u00e0 ohm (\u03a9). C\u00e1c lo\u1ea1i \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng truy\u1ec1n t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u tr\u00ean PCB c\u1ea7n ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t \u0111i\u1ec7n tr\u1edf bao g\u1ed3m: microstrip \u0111\u01a1n \u0111\u1ea7u, stripline \u0111\u01a1n \u0111\u1ea7u, c\u1eb7p microstrip vi sai, c\u1eb7p stripline vi sai, microstrip nh\u00fang v\u00e0 coplanar (c\u1ea3 \u0111\u01a1n \u0111\u1ea7u v\u00e0 vi sai).<\/p>

C\u00e1c ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p th\u00f4ng d\u1ee5ng \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111i\u1ec1u khi\u1ec3n tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng<\/h2>

1. S\u1eed d\u1ee5ng c\u1ea5u tr\u00fac l\u1edbp PCB<\/h3>

Nh\u00e0 thi\u1ebft k\u1ebf PCB c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng c\u1ea5u tr\u00fac l\u1edbp bo m\u1ea1ch \u0111\u1ec3 ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng. \u0110\u1eb7t c\u00e1c l\u1edbp t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u kh\u00e1c nhau \u1edf c\u00e1c v\u1ecb tr\u00ed kh\u00e1c nhau \u0111\u1ec3 ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t \u0111i\u1ec7n dung v\u00e0 c\u1ea3m \u1ee9ng gi\u1eefa c\u00e1c l\u1edbp. Th\u00f4ng th\u01b0\u1eddng, c\u00e1c l\u1edbp b\u00ean trong s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng c\u00e1c l\u1ef1a ch\u1ecdn tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng cao h\u01a1n v\u00e0 c\u00e1c l\u1edbp b\u00ean ngo\u00e0i s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng c\u00e1c l\u1ef1a ch\u1ecdn tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng th\u1ea5p h\u01a1n \u0111\u1ec3 gi\u1ea3m ph\u1ea3n x\u1ea1 v\u00e0 nhi\u1ec5u ch\u00e9o.<\/p>

2. S\u1eed d\u1ee5ng c\u00e1c \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u vi sai<\/h3>

C\u1eb7p t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u vi sai cung c\u1ea5p kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng lo\u1ea1i b\u1ecf nhi\u1ec5u t\u1ed1t h\u01a1n v\u00e0 gi\u1ea3m nguy c\u01a1 nhi\u1ec5u ch\u00e9o. C\u1eb7p t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u vi sai l\u00e0 hai d\u00e2y d\u1eabn song song. \u0110i\u1ec7n \u00e1p c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang c\u00f3 \u0111\u1ed9 l\u1edbn b\u1eb1ng nhau v\u00e0 c\u1ef1c t\u00ednh ng\u01b0\u1ee3c nhau. C\u1eb7p t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u vi sai cung c\u1ea5p \u0111\u1ed9 to\u00e0n v\u1eb9n t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u t\u1ed1t h\u01a1n v\u00e0 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng ch\u1ed1ng nhi\u1ec5u cao h\u01a1n. \u0110i\u1ec7n tr\u1edf c\u1ee7a c\u1eb7p t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u vi sai \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t b\u1edfi kho\u1ea3ng c\u00e1ch, chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn v\u00e0 b\u1ed1 tr\u00ed m\u1eb7t \u0111\u1ea5t.<\/p>

3. Ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t h\u00ecnh d\u1ea1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn<\/h3>

\u0110\u1ed9 r\u1ed9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn, kho\u1ea3ng c\u00e1ch v\u00e0 h\u00ecnh d\u1ea1ng b\u1ed1 tr\u00ed c\u0169ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ebfn tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng. \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi c\u1ea5u tr\u00fac microstrip th\u00f4ng th\u01b0\u1eddng, \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn r\u1ed9ng h\u01a1n v\u00e0 kho\u1ea3ng c\u00e1ch l\u1edbn h\u01a1n s\u1ebd l\u00e0m gi\u1ea3m tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng. \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi c\u1ea5u tr\u00fac lo\u1ea1i coaxial, \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn trong nh\u1ecf h\u01a1n v\u00e0 b\u00e1n k\u00ednh \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn ngo\u00e0i l\u1edbn h\u01a1n s\u1ebd l\u00e0m t\u0103ng tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng. Ch\u1ecdn h\u00ecnh d\u1ea1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng m\u1ee5c ti\u00eau v\u00e0 t\u1ea7n s\u1ed1 t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u.<\/p>

4. Ch\u1ecdn v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u PCB<\/h3>

H\u1eb1ng s\u1ed1 \u0111i\u1ec7n m\u00f4i c\u1ee7a v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u PCB \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ebfn tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng. L\u1ef1a ch\u1ecdn v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u c\u00f3 t\u00ednh ch\u1ea5t \u0111i\u1ec7n m\u00f4i \u1ed5n \u0111\u1ecbnh l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a vi\u1ec7c ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng. \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi \u1ee9ng d\u1ee5ng t\u1ea7n s\u1ed1 cao v\u00e0 t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 cao, c\u00e1c v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn bao g\u1ed3m FR4 (s\u1ee3i th\u1ee7y tinh-epoxy), PTFE (Teflon) v\u00e0 laminate RF.<\/p>

5. S\u1eed d\u1ee5ng c\u00e1c c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5 m\u00f4 ph\u1ecfng v\u00e0 thi\u1ebft k\u1ebf<\/h3>

Tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi ho\u00e0n thi\u1ec7n b\u1ed1 tr\u00ed m\u1ea1ch in (PCB), h\u00e3y s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng c\u00e1c c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5 m\u00f4 ph\u1ecfng v\u00e0 thi\u1ebft k\u1ebf \u0111\u1ec3 ki\u1ec3m tra v\u00e0 t\u1ed1i \u01b0u h\u00f3a tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng. C\u00e1c c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5 n\u00e0y m\u00f4 ph\u1ecfng h\u00e0nh vi m\u1ea1ch, t\u1ed5n th\u1ea5t t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u v\u00e0 t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u00e1c \u0111i\u1ec7n t\u1eeb. Ch\u00fang gi\u00fap x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh c\u00e1c th\u00f4ng s\u1ed1 t\u1ed1i \u01b0u cho b\u1ea3ng m\u1ea1ch. C\u00e1c c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5 ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn bao g\u1ed3m CST Studio Suite, HyperLynx v\u00e0 ADS.<\/p>

\u1ea2nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh s\u1ea3n xu\u1ea5t PCB \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng<\/h2>

\u0110\u1ed9 r\u1ed9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng v\u1ebft<\/h3>

\u0110\u1ed9 r\u1ed9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn tr\u1ef1c ti\u1ebfp \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ebfn tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng v\u00e0 t\u1ed5n hao c\u1ee7a \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng truy\u1ec1n. H\u1ea7u h\u1ebft c\u00e1c k\u1ef9 s\u01b0 gi\u1ecfi \u0111\u1ec1u cung c\u1ea5p cho nh\u00e0 s\u1ea3n xu\u1ea5t PCB m\u1ed9t dung sai chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn trong c\u00e1c t\u1ec7p Gerber. V\u00ed d\u1ee5, n\u1ebfu chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c thi\u1ebft k\u1ebf l\u00e0 6,2 mil v\u00e0 tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 l\u00e0 50 ohm, s\u1ef1 kh\u00f4ng \u1ed5n \u0111\u1ecbnh trong qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh s\u1ea3n xu\u1ea5t l\u00e0m thay \u0111\u1ed5i chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn s\u1ebd l\u00e0m thay \u0111\u1ed5i tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng. D\u1ef1a tr\u00ean kinh nghi\u1ec7m v\u1edbi nhi\u1ec1u nh\u00e0 m\u00e1y, chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 dao \u0111\u1ed9ng kho\u1ea3ng 10%. Ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 m\u00f4 h\u00ecnh h\u00f3a s\u1ef1 thay \u0111\u1ed5i chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t ph\u00e2n ph\u1ed1i Gaussian v\u1edbi \u0111\u1ed9 l\u1ec7ch chu\u1ea9n l\u00e0 10%.<\/p>

\u0110\u1ed9 d\u00e0y c\u1ee7a l\u00e1 \u0111\u1ed3ng \/ \u0111\u1ed3ng m\u1ea1<\/h3>

Trong c\u00e1c s\u1ea3n ph\u1ea9m PCB, \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y \u0111\u1ed3ng c\u00f3 hai ph\u1ea7n: \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y \u0111\u1ed3ng c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y \u0111\u1ed3ng m\u1ea1. \u0110\u1ed9 d\u00e0y \u0111\u1ed3ng c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed1i \u0111\u1ed3ng \u0111\u1ec1u, nh\u01b0ng \u0111\u1ed9 \u0111\u1ed3ng \u0111\u1ec1u c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ed3ng m\u1ea1 ph\u1ee5 thu\u1ed9c v\u00e0o quy tr\u00ecnh s\u1ea3n xu\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a nh\u00e0 m\u00e1y. \u0110\u1ed9 d\u00e0y \u0111\u1ed3ng m\u1ea1 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 thay \u0111\u1ed5i \u0111\u00e1ng k\u1ec3 gi\u1eefa c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 m\u00e1y. \u0110\u1ed9 d\u00e0y \u0111\u1ed3ng m\u1ea1 kh\u00e1c nhau s\u1ebd \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ebfn tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng v\u00e0 t\u1ed5n hao c\u1ee7a \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn. Tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 dao \u0111\u1ed9ng trong m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea1m vi nh\u1ecf, v\u00ed d\u1ee5 t\u1eeb 49,5 \u0111\u1ebfn 51 ohm. So v\u1edbi chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn, \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y \u0111\u1ed3ng c\u00f3 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng nh\u1ecf h\u01a1n \u0111\u1ebfn tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng.<\/p>

\u0110\u1ed9 d\u00e0y \u0111i\u1ec7n m\u00f4i<\/h3>

Trong qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh s\u1ea3n xu\u1ea5t PCB, s\u1ef1 thay \u0111\u1ed5i \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y l\u1edbp c\u00e1ch \u0111i\u1ec7n xu\u1ea5t ph\u00e1t t\u1eeb s\u1ef1 bi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a nguy\u00ean li\u1ec7u th\u00f4, \u00e1p l\u1ef1c \u00e9p l\u1edbp v\u00e0 l\u01b0\u1ee3ng keo l\u1ea5p \u0111\u1ea7y. N\u1ebfu \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y l\u1edbp c\u00e1ch \u0111i\u1ec7n thay \u0111\u1ed5i, tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng v\u00e0 t\u1ed5n hao c\u0169ng s\u1ebd thay \u0111\u1ed5i. Trong tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p nghi\u00eam tr\u1ecdng, c\u00e1c \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng truy\u1ec1n t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 g\u1eb7p t\u1ed5n hao l\u1edbn. Tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 dao \u0111\u1ed9ng t\u1eeb kho\u1ea3ng 44 ohm \u0111\u1ebfn 54 ohm. Ph\u1ea1m vi dao \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00ean \u0111\u1ebfn 10 ohm.<\/p>

Y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 \u0103n m\u00f2n<\/h3>

D\u00e2y d\u1eabn c\u00f3 \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y h\u1eefu h\u1ea1n. Sau khi \u0103n m\u00f2n, c\u00e1c \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 h\u00ecnh ch\u1eef nh\u1eadt ho\u00e0n h\u1ea3o. Ch\u00fang tr\u00f4ng gi\u1ed1ng h\u00ecnh thang h\u01a1n. G\u00f3c c\u1ee7a h\u00ecnh thang thay \u0111\u1ed5i theo \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ed3ng (bao g\u1ed3m c\u1ea3 l\u1edbp m\u1ea1). Khi \u0111\u1ed3ng m\u1ecfng, g\u00f3c c\u1ee7a th\u00e0nh b\u00ean ti\u1ebfn g\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ebfn 90\u00b0. K\u00edch th\u01b0\u1edbc g\u00f3c \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ebfn tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng. V\u00ed d\u1ee5, khi g\u00f3c c\u1ea1nh b\u00ean l\u00e0 70\u00b0, tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng kho\u1ea3ng 50 ohm. Khi g\u00f3c l\u00e0 90\u00b0, tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng kho\u1ea3ng 48,37 ohm.<\/p>

C\u00e1c th\u1eed nghi\u1ec7m tr\u00ean ch\u1ec9 thay \u0111\u1ed5i m\u1ed9t y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 t\u1ea1i m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec3m. Trong s\u1ea3n xu\u1ea5t th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf, nhi\u1ec1u bi\u1ebfn s\u1ed1 thay \u0111\u1ed5i c\u00f9ng l\u00fac. \u0110i\u1ec7n tr\u1edf c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 dao \u0111\u1ed9ng t\u1eeb kho\u1ea3ng 40 ohm \u0111\u1ebfn 56 ohm. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y v\u01b0\u1ee3t xa y\u00eau c\u1ea7u ti\u00eau chu\u1ea9n th\u00f4ng th\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 50\u03a9 \u00b110%. Trong qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh s\u1ea3n xu\u1ea5t, nhi\u1ec1u th\u00f4ng s\u1ed1 g\u00e2y ra s\u1ef1 thay \u0111\u1ed5i \u0111i\u1ec7n tr\u1edf. \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi c\u00e1c s\u1ea3n ph\u1ea9m t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 cao ho\u1eb7c cao c\u1ea5p, thi\u1ebft k\u1ebf PCB v\u00e0 quy tr\u00ecnh s\u1ea3n xu\u1ea5t ph\u1ea3i ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t nghi\u00eam ng\u1eb7t m\u1ecdi v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u v\u00e0 b\u01b0\u1edbc th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n. N\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng, s\u1ea3n ph\u1ea9m c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 g\u1eb7p ph\u1ea3i c\u00e1c v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 kh\u00f4ng mong mu\u1ed1n.<\/p>

\u0110i\u1ec7n tr\u1edf v\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec7n tr\u1edf \u0111\u1eb7c tr\u01b0ng<\/h2>

1. Kh\u00e1ng c\u1ef1<\/h3>

Khi d\u00f2ng \u0111i\u1ec7n xoay chi\u1ec1u (AC) ch\u1ea1y qua m\u1ed9t v\u1eadt d\u1eabn, s\u1ef1 c\u1ea3n tr\u1edf m\u00e0 n\u00f3 g\u1eb7p ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng (Impedance). K\u00fd hi\u1ec7u l\u00e0 Z. \u0110\u01a1n v\u1ecb v\u1eabn l\u00e0 ohm (\u03a9). S\u1ef1 c\u1ea3n tr\u1edf n\u00e0y kh\u00e1c v\u1edbi tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng c\u1ee7a d\u00f2ng \u0111i\u1ec7n m\u1ed9t chi\u1ec1u (DC). Trong AC, ngo\u00e0i tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng (R), c\u00f2n c\u00f3 tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng c\u1ea3m \u1ee9ng (XL) v\u00e0 tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng t\u1ee5 \u0111i\u1ec7n (XC).<\/p>

\u0110\u1ec3 ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t v\u1edbi \u0111i\u1ec7n tr\u1edf DC, ta g\u1ecdi \u0111i\u1ec7n tr\u1edf AC l\u00e0 tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng (Z).<\/p>

C\u00f4ng th\u1ee9c:<\/p>

\u00a0<\/div><\/div><\/div>
Z<\/span> = \u221a(R\u00b2 + (XL \u2212 XC)\u00b2)
\n<\/code><\/div><\/div>

2. \u0110i\u1ec7n tr\u1edf (Z)<\/h3>

V\u1edbi m\u1ee9c \u0111\u1ed9 t\u00edch h\u1ee3p IC cao h\u01a1n v\u00e0 t\u1ea7n s\u1ed1 t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u c\u00f9ng t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 cao h\u01a1n, t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u tr\u00ean c\u00e1c \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn PCB c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 b\u1ecb \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng b\u1edfi ch\u00ednh \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn PCB \u0111\u00f3. Khi t\u1ea7n s\u1ed1 t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ebfn gi\u1edbi h\u1ea1n, \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn PCB g\u00e2y ra s\u1ef1 bi\u1ebfn d\u1ea1ng nghi\u00eam tr\u1ecdng ho\u1eb7c m\u1ea5t m\u00e1t t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y cho th\u1ea5y c\u00e1c \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn PCB kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 truy\u1ec1n d\u00f2ng \u0111i\u1ec7n m\u00e0 c\u00f2n truy\u1ec1n n\u0103ng l\u01b0\u1ee3ng d\u01b0\u1edbi d\u1ea1ng xung ho\u1eb7c t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u s\u00f3ng vu\u00f4ng.<\/p>

3. \u0110i\u1ec1u khi\u1ec3n tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng \u0111\u1eb7c tr\u01b0ng (Z0)<\/h3>

\u0110i\u1ec7n tr\u1edf \u0111\u1eb7c tr\u01b0ng l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec7n tr\u1edf m\u00e0 t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u g\u1eb7p ph\u1ea3i khi truy\u1ec1n \u0111i. K\u00fd hi\u1ec7u l\u00e0 Z0.<\/p>

V\u00ec v\u1eady, vi\u1ec7c ch\u1ec9 s\u1eeda ch\u1eefa c\u00e1c l\u1ed7i \u201cm\u1edf\u201d, \u201cng\u1eafn m\u1ea1ch\u201d v\u00e0 k\u1ebft n\u1ed1i l\u00e0 ch\u01b0a \u0111\u1ee7. \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi c\u00e1c \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng truy\u1ec1n t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 cao v\u00e0 t\u1ea7n s\u1ed1 cao, ti\u00eau chu\u1ea9n ch\u1ea5t l\u01b0\u1ee3ng ph\u1ea3i nghi\u00eam ng\u1eb7t h\u01a1n. Vi\u1ec7c v\u01b0\u1ee3t qua b\u00e0i ki\u1ec3m tra m\u1edf\/ng\u1eafn m\u1ea1ch ho\u1eb7c c\u00f3 c\u00e1c khuy\u1ebft t\u1eadt nh\u1ecf l\u00e0 ch\u01b0a \u0111\u1ee7. B\u1ea1n ph\u1ea3i \u0111o Z0 v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea3m b\u1ea3o n\u00f3 n\u1eb1m trong gi\u1edbi h\u1ea1n dung sai. N\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng, b\u1ea3ng m\u1ea1ch ph\u1ea3i b\u1ecb lo\u1ea1i b\u1ecf. Kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eeda ch\u1eefa l\u1ea1i.<\/p>

Truy\u1ec1n d\u1eabn t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng truy\u1ec1n<\/h2>

1. \u0110\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a v\u1ec1 \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng truy\u1ec1n t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u<\/h3>

  1. Theo l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft \u0111i\u1ec7n t\u1eeb, b\u01b0\u1edbc s\u00f3ng ng\u1eafn h\u01a1n (\u03bb) t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u1ee9ng v\u1edbi t\u1ea7n s\u1ed1 cao h\u01a1n (f). T\u00edch c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang b\u1eb1ng t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0:<\/p><\/li><\/ol>

    \u00a0<\/div><\/div><\/div>
    C<\/span> = \u03bb \u00b7 f = 3<\/span> \u00d7 10<\/span>^10<\/span> cm\/s
    \n<\/code><\/div><\/div>

    1. B\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 thi\u1ebft b\u1ecb n\u00e0o c\u0169ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 c\u00f3 t\u1ea7n s\u1ed1 t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u cao. Sau khi t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u \u0111i qua \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn tr\u00ean b\u1ea3ng m\u1ea1ch in (PCB), t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 b\u1ecb ch\u1eadm l\u1ea1i ho\u1eb7c b\u1ecb tr\u1ec5.<\/p><\/li><\/ol>

      V\u1eady, chi\u1ec1u d\u00e0i \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn ng\u1eafn h\u01a1n l\u00e0 t\u1ed1t h\u01a1n.<\/p>

      1. T\u0103ng m\u1eadt \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e2y d\u1eabn ho\u1eb7c gi\u1ea3m k\u00edch th\u01b0\u1edbc d\u00e2y c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 gi\u00fap c\u1ea3i thi\u1ec7n t\u00ecnh h\u00ecnh. Tuy nhi\u00ean, khi t\u1ea7n s\u1ed1 c\u1ee7a linh ki\u1ec7n t\u0103ng cao ho\u1eb7c chu k\u1ef3 xung ng\u1eafn l\u1ea1i, chi\u1ec1u d\u00e0i \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ti\u1ec7m c\u1eadn v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a b\u01b0\u1edbc s\u00f3ng t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u. L\u00fac \u0111\u00f3, \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn s\u1ebd xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n m\u00e9o d\u1ea1ng r\u00f5 r\u1ec7t.<\/p><\/li>

      2. \u0110i\u1ec1u 3.4.4 c\u1ee7a IPC-2141 quy \u0111\u1ecbnh: Khi chi\u1ec1u d\u00e0i \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u ti\u1ebfp c\u1eadn 1\/7 b\u01b0\u1edbc s\u00f3ng t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u, \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c coi l\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng truy\u1ec1n t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u.<\/p><\/li>

      3. V\u00ed d\u1ee5:<\/p><\/li><\/ol>

        M\u1ed9t thi\u1ebft b\u1ecb c\u00f3 t\u1ea7n s\u1ed1 t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u f = 10 MHz. Chi\u1ec1u d\u00e0i \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn PCB l\u00e0 50 cm. C\u00f3 c\u1ea7n ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng \u0111\u1eb7c tr\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng?<\/p>

        T\u00ednh to\u00e1n:<\/p>

        \u00a0<\/div><\/div><\/div>
        C = \u03bb \u00b7 f = 3 \u00d7 10^10 cm\/s
        \n\u03bb = C \/ f = (3 \u00d7 10^10 cm\/s) \/ (1 \u00d7 10^7 \/s) = 3000 cm
        \nChi\u1ec1u d\u00e0i \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng truy\u1ec1n \/ b\u01b0\u1edbc s\u00f3ng = 50 \/ 3000 = 1\/60
        \n<\/code><\/div><\/div>

        V\u00ec 1\/60 nh\u1ecf h\u01a1n nhi\u1ec1u so v\u1edbi 1\/7, \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn n\u00e0y l\u00e0 d\u00e2y d\u1eabn th\u00f4ng th\u01b0\u1eddng v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7n ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng \u0111\u1eb7c tr\u01b0ng.<\/p>

        C\u00e1c ph\u01b0\u01a1ng tr\u00ecnh Maxwell cho bi\u1ebft: T\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 truy\u1ec1n VS c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t s\u00f3ng sin trong m\u00f4i tr\u01b0\u1eddng li\u00ean quan \u0111\u1ebfn t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng C v\u00e0 h\u1eb1ng s\u1ed1 \u0111i\u1ec7n m\u00f4i \u03b5r nh\u01b0 sau:<\/p>

        \u00a0<\/div><\/div><\/div>
        VS<\/span> = C \/ \u221a\u03b5r
        \n<\/code><\/div><\/div>

        Khi \u03b5r = 1, t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u b\u1eb1ng t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 \u00e1nh s\u00e1ng = 3 \u00d7 10^10 cm\/s.<\/p>

        2. T\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 truy\u1ec1n d\u1eabn v\u00e0 h\u1eb1ng s\u1ed1 \u0111i\u1ec7n m\u00f4i<\/h3>

        T\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u \u1edf t\u1ea7n s\u1ed1 30 MHz cho c\u00e1c v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u kh\u00e1c nhau:<\/p>

        V\u1eadt li\u1ec7u \/ Ch\u1ea5t n\u1ec1n<\/th>Nhi\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ed9 (\u00b0C)<\/th>H\u1eb1ng s\u1ed1 \u0111i\u1ec7n m\u00f4i \u03b5r<\/th>T\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u (m\/\u03bcs)<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>
        H\u00fat ch\u00e2n kh\u00f4ng<\/td>\/<\/td>1.0<\/td>300.00<\/td><\/tr>
        PTFE (Teflon)<\/td>\/<\/td>2.2<\/td>202.26<\/td><\/tr>
        Polyphenylene ether nhi\u1ec7t r\u1eafn<\/td>210<\/td>2.5<\/td>189.74<\/td><\/tr>
        Este xyanat<\/td>225<\/td>3.0<\/td>173.21<\/td><\/tr>
        PTFE + S\u1ee3i th\u1ee7y tinh E<\/td>\/<\/td>2.6<\/td>186.25<\/td><\/tr>
        Ester xyanat + th\u1ee7y tinh<\/td>225<\/td>3.7<\/td>155.96<\/td><\/tr>
        Polyimide + k\u00ednh<\/td>230<\/td>4.5<\/td>141.42<\/td><\/tr>
        Th\u1ea1ch anh<\/td>\/<\/td>3.9<\/td>151.98<\/td><\/tr>
        Glass epoxy (FR4)<\/td>130 \u00b1 5<\/td>4.7<\/td>138.38<\/td><\/tr>
        Nh\u00f4m<\/td>\/<\/td>9.0<\/td>100.00<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/div><\/div>

        B\u1ea3ng cho th\u1ea5y: khi \u03b5r t\u0103ng, t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u trong v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u gi\u1ea3m. \u0110\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u cao h\u01a1n, h\u00e3y ch\u1ecdn v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u c\u00f3 tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng \u0111\u1eb7c tr\u01b0ng cao h\u01a1n. \u0110\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Z0 cao h\u01a1n, h\u00e3y ch\u1ecdn v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u c\u00f3 \u03b5r th\u1ea5p h\u01a1n. PTFE c\u00f3 \u03b5r nh\u1ecf nh\u1ea5t, do \u0111\u00f3 n\u00f3 cung c\u1ea5p t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 nhanh nh\u1ea5t.<\/p>

        Bo m\u1ea1ch FR4 s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng nh\u1ef1a epoxy k\u1ebft h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi s\u1ee3i th\u1ee7y tinh E-glass. H\u1eb1ng s\u1ed1 \u0111i\u1ec7n m\u00f4i (\u03b5r) c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 kho\u1ea3ng 4.7. T\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 truy\u1ec1n t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u l\u00e0 138 m\/\u03bcs. Vi\u1ec7c thay \u0111\u1ed5i h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng nh\u1ef1a c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0m thay \u0111\u1ed5i h\u1eb1ng s\u1ed1 \u0111i\u1ec7n m\u00f4i (\u03b5r).<\/p>

        L\u00fd do c\u1ea7n ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng \u0111\u1eb7c tr\u01b0ng<\/h2>

        L\u00fd do 1<\/h3>

        Khi thi\u1ebft b\u1ecb \u0111i\u1ec7n t\u1eed (m\u00e1y t\u00ednh, thi\u1ebft b\u1ecb truy\u1ec1n th\u00f4ng) ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng, b\u1ed9 \u0111i\u1ec1u khi\u1ec3n g\u1eedi t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u \u0111\u1ebfn b\u1ed9 thu qua c\u00e1c \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn tr\u00ean b\u1ea3ng m\u1ea1ch in (PCB). \u0110i\u1ec7n tr\u1edf \u0111\u1eb7c tr\u01b0ng Z0 c\u1ee7a \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn ph\u1ea3i t\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u00edch v\u1edbi \u0111i\u1ec7n tr\u1edf \u0111i\u1ec7n t\u1eed c\u1ee7a b\u1ed9 \u0111i\u1ec1u khi\u1ec3n v\u00e0 b\u1ed9 thu. N\u1ebfu t\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u00edch, n\u0103ng l\u01b0\u1ee3ng t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u s\u1ebd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c truy\u1ec1n t\u1ea3i ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n.<\/p>

        L\u00fd do 2<\/h3>

        N\u1ebfu ch\u1ea5t l\u01b0\u1ee3ng PCB k\u00e9m v\u00e0 Z0 n\u1eb1m ngo\u00e0i gi\u1edbi h\u1ea1n cho ph\u00e9p, t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 b\u1ecb ph\u1ea3n x\u1ea1, ti\u00eau t\u00e1n, suy gi\u1ea3m ho\u1eb7c tr\u1ec5. Trong tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p nghi\u00eam tr\u1ecdng, t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 b\u1ecb sai l\u1ec7ch v\u00e0 thi\u1ebft b\u1ecb c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 b\u1ecb h\u1ecfng.<\/p>

        L\u00fd do 3<\/h3>

        Vi\u1ec7c l\u1ef1a ch\u1ecdn v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u nghi\u00eam ng\u1eb7t v\u00e0 ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t quy tr\u00ecnh s\u1ea3n xu\u1ea5t l\u00e0 c\u1ea7n thi\u1ebft \u0111\u1ec3 b\u1ea3ng m\u1ea1ch \u0111a l\u1edbp Z0 \u0111\u00e1p \u1ee9ng c\u00e1c y\u00eau c\u1ea7u k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt c\u1ee7a kh\u00e1ch h\u00e0ng. C\u00e1c linh ki\u1ec7n c\u00f3 tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng \u0111i\u1ec7n t\u1eed cao th\u01b0\u1eddng y\u00eau c\u1ea7u b\u1ea3ng m\u1ea1ch in (PCB) c\u00f3 Z0 cao h\u01a1n \u0111\u1ec3 t\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u00edch. M\u1ed9t b\u1ea3ng m\u1ea1ch \u0111a l\u1edbp c\u00f3 Z0 ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c l\u00e0 s\u1ea3n ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u1ea1t ti\u00eau chu\u1ea9n cho \u1ee9ng d\u1ee5ng t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 cao ho\u1eb7c t\u1ea7n s\u1ed1 cao.<\/p>

        M\u1ed1i quan h\u1ec7 gi\u1eefa Z0 v\u1edbi v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u v\u00e0 quy tr\u00ecnh<\/h2>

        C\u00f4ng th\u1ee9c t\u00ednh tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng \u0111\u1eb7c tr\u01b0ng Z0 c\u1ee7a d\u1ea3i vi s\u00f3ng:<\/p>

        \u00a0<\/div><\/div><\/div>
        Z0<\/span> = 87<\/span> \/ \u221a\u03b5r + 1.41<\/span> \u00b7 ln [ 5.98<\/span> H \/ (0.8<\/span> W + T) ]
        \n<\/code><\/div><\/div>

        N\u01a1i:<\/p>

        • \u03b5r \u2014 h\u1eb1ng s\u1ed1 \u0111i\u1ec7n m\u00f4i<\/p><\/li>

        • H \u2014 \u0110\u1ed9 d\u00e0y \u0111i\u1ec7n m\u00f4i<\/p><\/li>

        • W \u2014 chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng v\u1ebft<\/p><\/li>

        • T \u2014 \u0110\u1ed9 d\u00e0y c\u1ee7a \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng v\u1ebft<\/p><\/li><\/ul>

          Gi\u1ea3m \u03b5r gi\u00fap d\u1ec5 d\u00e0ng n\u00e2ng Z0 \u0111\u1ec3 ph\u00f9 h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh ph\u1ea7n t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 cao.<\/p>

          1. Z0 v\u00e0 \u03b5r<\/h3>

          Z0 c\u00f3 m\u1ed1i quan h\u1ec7 ngh\u1ecbch \u0111\u1ea3o v\u1edbi \u03b5r. Z0 t\u0103ng khi H t\u0103ng. \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi c\u00e1c \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng truy\u1ec1n t\u1ea7n s\u1ed1 cao c\u00f3 y\u00eau c\u1ea7u nghi\u00eam ng\u1eb7t v\u1ec1 Z0, \u0111\u1ed9 dung sai \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y c\u1ee7a v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u \u0111i\u1ec7n m\u00f4i ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t nghi\u00eam ng\u1eb7t. Th\u00f4ng th\u01b0\u1eddng, s\u1ef1 thay \u0111\u1ed5i \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y c\u1ee7a v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u \u0111i\u1ec7n m\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u01b0\u1ee3t qu\u00e1 10%.<\/p>

          2. \u1ea2nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y \u0111i\u1ec7n m\u00f4i<\/h3>

          V\u1edbi m\u1eadt \u0111\u1ed9 \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn cao h\u01a1n, k\u00edch th\u01b0\u1edbc H l\u1edbn h\u01a1n d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn nhi\u1ec5u \u0111i\u1ec7n t\u1eeb nhi\u1ec1u h\u01a1n. \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi c\u00e1c \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt s\u1ed1 t\u1ea7n s\u1ed1 cao v\u00e0 t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 cao, khi m\u1eadt \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e2y d\u1eabn t\u0103ng l\u00ean, c\u1ea7n gi\u1ea3m \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y l\u1edbp c\u00e1ch \u0111i\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ec3 gi\u1ea3m nhi\u1ec5u \u0111i\u1ec7n t\u1eeb (EMI) v\u00e0 nhi\u1ec5u ch\u00e9o (crosstalk), ho\u1eb7c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u c\u00f3 h\u1eb1ng s\u1ed1 \u0111i\u1ec7n m\u00f4i (\u03b5r) th\u1ea5p h\u01a1n.<\/p>

          T\u1eeb c\u00f4ng th\u1ee9c, \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y \u0111\u1ed3ng T l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 quan tr\u1ecdng. \u0110\u1ed9 d\u00e0y T l\u1edbn h\u01a1n l\u00e0m gi\u1ea3m Z0, nh\u01b0ng s\u1ef1 thay \u0111\u1ed5i l\u00e0 nh\u1ecf.<\/p>

          3. \u1ea2nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y \u0111\u1ed3ng<\/h3>

          \u0110\u1ed3ng m\u1ecfng h\u01a1n cho gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb Z0 cao h\u01a1n, nh\u01b0ng t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi Z0 l\u00e0 nh\u1ecf. S\u1eed d\u1ee5ng \u0111\u1ed3ng m\u1ecfng gi\u00fap t\u1ea1o ra c\u00e1c \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn m\u1ecfng h\u01a1n v\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y gi\u00fap ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t Z0 hi\u1ec7u qu\u1ea3 h\u01a1n so v\u1edbi ch\u1ec9 d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ed3ng.<\/p>

          T\u1eeb c\u00f4ng th\u1ee9c:<\/p>

          \u00a0<\/div><\/div><\/div>
          Z0<\/span> = 87<\/span> \/ \u221a\u03b5r + 1.41<\/span> \u00b7 ln [ 5.98<\/span> H \/ (0.8<\/span> W + T) ]
          \n<\/code><\/div><\/div>

          Khi W (\u0111\u1ed9 r\u1ed9ng v\u1ebft) gi\u1ea3m, Z0 t\u0103ng. Vi\u1ec7c thay \u0111\u1ed5i \u0111\u1ed9 r\u1ed9ng c\u00f3 t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng l\u1edbn h\u01a1n \u0111\u1ebfn Z0 so v\u1edbi vi\u1ec7c thay \u0111\u1ed5i \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y.<\/p>

          4. \u1ea2nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ed9 r\u1ed9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng v\u1ea1ch<\/h3>

          Z0 t\u0103ng \u0111\u1ed9t ng\u1ed9t khi chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng W thu h\u1eb9p. \u0110\u1ec3 ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t Z0, c\u1ea7n ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t ch\u1eb7t ch\u1ebd chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn. Hi\u1ec7n nay, h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft c\u00e1c \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt s\u1ed1 t\u1ea7n s\u1ed1 cao v\u00e0 t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 cao c\u00f3 chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng kho\u1ea3ng 0,10 mm ho\u1eb7c 0,13 mm. Truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng, dung sai chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng l\u00e0 \u00b120%. \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi c\u00e1c \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng truy\u1ec1n (chi\u1ec1u d\u00e0i \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn << b\u01b0\u1edbc s\u00f3ng t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u \/ 7), \u00b120% c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c. Tuy nhi\u00ean, \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi c\u00e1c \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t Z0, sai s\u1ed1 chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng \u00b120% kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u00e1p \u1ee9ng y\u00eau c\u1ea7u. L\u00fac \u0111\u00f3, sai s\u1ed1 Z0 th\u01b0\u1eddng v\u01b0\u1ee3t qu\u00e1 \u00b110%.<\/p>

          V\u00ed d\u1ee5:<\/p>

          M\u1ed9t d\u1ea3i vi m\u1ea1ch PCB c\u00f3 chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng 100 \u03bcm, \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y 20 \u03bcm v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y l\u1edbp c\u00e1ch \u0111i\u1ec7n 100 \u03bcm. Gi\u1ea3 s\u1eed \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y \u0111\u1ed3ng l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed3ng nh\u1ea5t. N\u1ebfu chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng thay \u0111\u1ed5i \u00b120%, li\u1ec7u Z0 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e1p \u1ee9ng \u00b110% kh\u00f4ng?<\/p>

          Theo c\u00f4ng th\u1ee9c:<\/p>

          H\u00e3y \u0111\u1eb7t W0 = 100 \u03bcm, W1 = 80 \u03bcm, W2 = 120 \u03bcm, T = 20 \u03bcm, H = 100 \u03bcm. Khi \u0111\u00f3 Z01 \/ Z02 = 1.20. V\u1eady Z0 ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u1ea1t \u00b110%, kh\u00f4ng n\u1eb1m trong kho\u1ea3ng \u00b110%. \u0110\u1ec3 Z0 n\u1eb1m trong kho\u1ea3ng \u00b110%, \u0111\u1ed9 bi\u1ebfn thi\u00ean chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng ph\u1ea3i nh\u1ecf h\u01a1n nhi\u1ec1u so v\u1edbi \u00b120%. \u0110\u1ec3 Z0 \u2264 \u00b15%, \u0111\u1ed9 dung sai chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng ph\u1ea3i \u2264 \u00b110%.<\/p>

          \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch t\u1ea1i sao m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 b\u1ea3ng m\u1ea1ch in PTFE v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 b\u1ea3ng m\u1ea1ch in FR4 y\u00eau c\u1ea7u dung sai chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng \u00b10.02 mm. L\u00fd do l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ec3 ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t Z0.<\/p>

          Ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh cho tr\u1edf kh\u00e1ng \u0111\u1eb7c tr\u01b0ng<\/h2>

          1. Ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t v\u00e0 ki\u1ec3m tra qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh s\u1ea3n xu\u1ea5t phim<\/strong>
            Gi\u1eef nhi\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ed9 v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed9 \u1ea9m \u1ed5n \u0111\u1ecbnh (21\u00b12\u00b0C, 55\u00b15%), duy tr\u00ec ph\u00f2ng s\u1ea1ch v\u00e0 th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n b\u00f9 tr\u1eeb qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh.<\/p><\/li>

          2. Thi\u1ebft k\u1ebf b\u1ea3ng \u0111i\u1ec1u khi\u1ec3n<\/strong>
            C\u00e1c c\u1ea1nh c\u1ee7a t\u1ea5m panel kh\u00f4ng n\u00ean qu\u00e1 h\u1eb9p. \u0110\u1ea3m b\u1ea3o l\u1edbp m\u1ea1 \u0111\u1ed3ng \u0111\u1ec1u. S\u1eed d\u1ee5ng c\u1ef1c \u00e2m gi\u1ea3 trong qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh m\u1ea1 \u0111i\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ec3 ph\u00e2n ph\u1ed1i d\u00f2ng \u0111i\u1ec7n. Th\u00eam m\u1ed9t m\u1eabu th\u1eed tr\u00ean c\u1ea1nh t\u1ea5m panel \u0111\u1ec3 ki\u1ec3m tra Z0.<\/p><\/li>

          3. Gravure<\/strong>
            \u0110i\u1ec1u ch\u1ec9nh c\u00e1c th\u00f4ng s\u1ed1 qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh \u0111\u1ec3 gi\u1ea3m hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1eaft s\u00e2u. Th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n ki\u1ec3m tra l\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ea7u. Gi\u1ea3m l\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ed3ng d\u01b0, m\u1ea3nh v\u1ee5n \u0111\u1ed3ng v\u00e0 ph\u1ebf li\u1ec7u \u0111\u1ed3ng. Ki\u1ec3m tra \u0111\u1ed9 r\u1ed9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea3m b\u1ea3o n\u00f3 n\u1eb1m trong ph\u1ea1m vi y\u00eau c\u1ea7u (\u00b110% ho\u1eb7c \u00b10,02 mm).<\/p><\/li>

          4. Ki\u1ec3m tra AOI<\/strong>
            \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi c\u00e1c l\u1edbp b\u00ean trong, h\u00e3y ki\u1ec3m tra c\u00e1c khe h\u1edf v\u00e0 ph\u1ea7n nh\u00f4 ra. \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi t\u00edn hi\u1ec7u t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 cao 2 GHz, ngay c\u1ea3 m\u1ed9t khe h\u1edf 0,05 mm c\u0169ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 g\u00e2y h\u1ecfng bo m\u1ea1ch. Ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng v\u00e0 c\u00e1c khuy\u1ebft t\u1eadt c\u1ee7a l\u1edbp b\u00ean trong l\u00e0 y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 quan tr\u1ecdng.<\/p><\/li>

          5. Laminate<\/strong>
            S\u1eed d\u1ee5ng c\u00f4ng ngh\u1ec7 \u00e9p ch\u00e2n kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ec3 gi\u1ea3m \u00e1p su\u1ea5t v\u00e0 h\u1ea1n ch\u1ebf d\u00f2ng ch\u1ea3y c\u1ee7a nh\u1ef1a. Gi\u1eef l\u1ea1i nhi\u1ec1u nh\u1ef1a h\u01a1n v\u00ec nh\u1ef1a \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ebfn \u03b5r. L\u01b0\u1ee3ng nh\u1ef1a nhi\u1ec1u h\u01a1n th\u01b0\u1eddng l\u00e0m gi\u1ea3m \u03b5r. Ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t \u0111\u1ed9 dung sai \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y c\u1ee7a l\u1edbp \u00e9p. N\u1ebfu \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y c\u1ee7a b\u1ea3ng ho\u00e0n thi\u1ec7n kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ec1u, \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y c\u1ee7a l\u1edbp c\u00e1ch \u0111i\u1ec7n s\u1ebd thay \u0111\u1ed5i v\u00e0 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ebfn Z0.<\/p><\/li>

          6. Ch\u1ecdn v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u n\u1ec1n t\u1ed1t<\/strong>
            Tu\u00e2n th\u1ee7 nghi\u00eam ng\u1eb7t m\u00f4 h\u00ecnh v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u c\u1ee7a kh\u00e1ch h\u00e0ng. M\u00f4 h\u00ecnh sai s\u1ebd d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb \u03b5r sai v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y sai. M\u1ed9t quy tr\u00ecnh ho\u00e0n ch\u1ec9nh s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u sai v\u1eabn s\u1ebd cho ra s\u1ea3n ph\u1ea9m h\u1ecfng v\u00ec Z0 ph\u1ee5 thu\u1ed9c m\u1ea1nh m\u1ebd v\u00e0o \u03b5r.<\/p><\/li>

          7. L\u1edbp ph\u1ee7 h\u00e0n (coverlay)<\/strong>
            L\u1edbp ph\u1ee7 h\u00e0n tr\u00ean b\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t b\u1ea3ng m\u1ea1ch c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0m gi\u1ea3m Z0 t\u1eeb 1\u20133 \u03a9. V\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t l\u00fd thuy\u1ebft, \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y c\u1ee7a l\u1edbp ph\u1ee7 h\u00e0n kh\u00f4ng n\u00ean qu\u00e1 d\u00e0y. Tr\u00ean th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf, t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng qu\u00e1 l\u1edbn. Tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi c\u00f3 l\u1edbp ph\u1ee7 h\u00e0n, b\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t d\u1eabn \u0111i\u1ec7n ti\u1ebfp x\u00fac v\u1edbi kh\u00f4ng kh\u00ed (\u03b5r = 1) n\u00ean gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb Z0 \u0111o \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c cao h\u01a1n. Sau khi c\u00f3 l\u1edbp ph\u1ee7 h\u00e0n, Z0 gi\u1ea3m 1\u20133 \u03a9 v\u00ec \u03b5r c\u1ee7a l\u1edbp ph\u1ee7 h\u00e0n kho\u1ea3ng 4.0.<\/p><\/li>

          8. Kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng h\u1ea5p th\u1ee5 \u0111\u1ed9 \u1ea9m<\/strong>
            Tr\u00e1nh h\u1ea5p th\u1ee5 \u0111\u1ed9 \u1ea9m trong c\u00e1c t\u1ea5m g\u1ed7 nhi\u1ec1u l\u1edbp \u0111\u00e3 ho\u00e0n thi\u1ec7n. N\u01b0\u1edbc c\u00f3 \u03b5r \u2248 75. \u0110\u1ed9 \u1ea9m g\u00e2y ra s\u1ef1 s\u1ee5t gi\u1ea3m l\u1edbn c\u1ee7a Z0 v\u00e0 g\u00e2y m\u1ea5t \u1ed5n \u0111\u1ecbnh.<\/p><\/li><\/ol>

            T\u00f3m t\u1eaft<\/h2>

            \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi c\u00e1c \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng truy\u1ec1n tr\u00ean b\u1ea3ng m\u1ea1ch \u0111a l\u1edbp, c\u00e1c kho\u1ea3ng \u0111i\u1ec1u khi\u1ec3n Z0 th\u00f4ng d\u1ee5ng l\u00e0:<\/p>

            • 50 \u03a9 \u00b110%<\/p><\/li>

            • 75 \u03a9 \u00b110%<\/p><\/li>

            • 28 \u03a9 \u00b110%<\/p><\/li><\/ul>

              \u0110\u1ec3 ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t s\u1ef1 bi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ed9ng, h\u00e3y xem x\u00e9t b\u1ed1n y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 ch\u00ednh sau:<\/p>

              1. \u0110\u1ed9 r\u1ed9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng v\u1ebft W<\/p><\/li>

              2. \u0110\u1ed9 d\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng v\u1ebft T<\/p><\/li>

              3. \u0110\u1ed9 d\u00e0y \u0111i\u1ec7n m\u00f4i H<\/p><\/li>

              4. H\u1eb1ng s\u1ed1 \u0111i\u1ec7n m\u00f4i \u03b5r<\/p><\/li><\/ol>

                Y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng l\u1edbn nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y \u0111i\u1ec7n m\u00f4i H. Ti\u1ebfp theo l\u00e0 h\u1eb1ng s\u1ed1 \u0111i\u1ec7n m\u00f4i \u03b5r. Sau \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn W. Y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 nh\u1ecf nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn T. Sau khi ch\u1ecdn v\u1eadt li\u1ec7u n\u1ec1n, s\u1ef1 thay \u0111\u1ed5i c\u1ee7a \u03b5r l\u00e0 nh\u1ecf. H c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t nh\u01b0ng v\u1eabn c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 bi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ed5i. T d\u1ec5 ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t h\u01a1n. Ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn W trong ph\u1ea1m vi \u00b110% l\u00e0 kh\u00f3 kh\u0103n. C\u00e1c v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 v\u1ec1 \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn nh\u01b0 l\u1ed7 nh\u1ecf, khe h\u1edf v\u00e0 v\u1ebft l\u00f5m c\u0169ng quan tr\u1ecdng. Theo nhi\u1ec1u c\u00e1ch, ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p hi\u1ec7u qu\u1ea3 v\u00e0 quan tr\u1ecdng nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ec3 ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t Z0 l\u00e0 ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t v\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u ch\u1ec9nh \u0111\u1ed9 r\u1ed9ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng d\u1eabn m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

                What is PCB Impedance Control? PCB impedance control means controlling the impedance of traces. This impedance is also called controlled […]<\/p>","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":1898,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_uag_custom_page_level_css":"","site-sidebar-layout":"no-sidebar","site-content-layout":"","ast-site-content-layout":"full-width-container","site-content-style":"default","site-sidebar-style":"default","ast-global-header-display":"","ast-banner-title-visibility":"","ast-main-header-display":"","ast-hfb-above-header-display":"","ast-hfb-below-header-display":"","ast-hfb-mobile-header-display":"","site-post-title":"disabled","ast-breadcrumbs-content":"","ast-featured-img":"disabled","footer-sml-layout":"","theme-transparent-header-meta":"","adv-header-id-meta":"","stick-header-meta":"","header-above-stick-meta":"","header-main-stick-meta":"","header-below-stick-meta":"","astra-migrate-meta-layouts":"default","ast-page-background-enabled":"default","ast-page-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center 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                What is PCB Impedance Control?<\\\/h2>

                PCB impedance control means controlling the impedance of traces. This impedance is also called controlled impedance. Controlled impedance is the characteristic impedance of a transmission line formed by PCB traces and their reference planes. When high-frequency signals travel on PCB transmission lines, this matters. Controlled impedance is important to solve signal integrity problems. Signal integrity means the signal travels without distortion.<\\\/p>

                The circuit impedance is set by the PCB physical size and the dielectric material. It is measured in ohms (\\u03a9). Types of PCB transmission lines that need impedance control include single-ended microstrip, single-ended stripline, differential microstrip pair, differential stripline pair, embedded microstrip, and coplanar (single-ended and differential).<\\\/p>

                Common methods to achieve impedance control<\\\/h2>

                1. Use PCB layer structure<\\\/h3>

                PCB designers can use the board layer stack to control impedance. Put different signal layers at different positions to control capacitance and inductance between layers. Usually, inner layers use higher impedance choices and outer layers use lower impedance choices to reduce reflection and crosstalk.<\\\/p>

                2. Use differential signal lines<\\\/h3>

                Differential pairs give better noise rejection and lower crosstalk risk. A differential pair is two parallel conductors. Their voltages are equal in size and opposite in polarity. Differential pairs give better signal integrity and noise resistance. The impedance of a differential pair is controlled by the spacing, trace width, and the ground plane layout.<\\\/p>

                3. Control trace geometry<\\\/h3>

                Trace width, spacing, and layout geometry can also control impedance. For common microstrip, wider traces and larger spacing lower impedance. For coaxial type structures, a smaller inner conductor and a larger outer conductor radius raise impedance. Choose trace geometry based on target impedance and signal frequency.<\\\/p>

                4. Choose PCB materials<\\\/h3>

                The dielectric constant of the PCB material affects impedance. Picking materials with stable dielectric properties is part of impedance control. For high frequency and high speed use, common materials are fr4 (glass-epoxy), PTFE (Teflon), and RF laminates.<\\\/p>

                5. Use simulation and design tools<\\\/h3>

                Before final PCB layout, use simulation and design tools to check and optimize impedance. These tools simulate circuit behavior, signal loss, and electromagnetic interactions. They help find the best board parameters. Common tools include CST Studio Suite, HyperLynx, and ADS.<\\\/p>

                Effects of PCB manufacturing on impedance<\\\/h2>

                Trace width<\\\/h3>

                Trace width directly affects transmission line impedance and loss. Most good engineers give the PCB maker a trace width tolerance with Gerber files. For example, if a trace width is designed as 6.2 mil and its impedance is 50 ohm, manufacturing instability that changes the trace width will change impedance. From experience with many factories, trace width may vary about 10%. We can model trace width change as a Gaussian distribution with a standard deviation of 10%.<\\\/p>

                Copper foil \\\/ plated copper thickness<\\\/h3>

                In PCB products, copper thickness has two parts: base copper thickness and plated copper thickness. Base copper is relatively uniform, but plated copper uniformity depends on factory process. Plated copper may vary a lot between factories. Different plated copper thickness will change trace impedance and loss. Impedance may vary in a small range, for example between 49.5 and 51 ohm. Compared with trace width, copper thickness has a smaller effect on impedance.<\\\/p>

                Dielectric thickness<\\\/h3>

                In PCB manufacture, dielectric thickness changes come from raw material variation, lamination pressure, and glue filling. If dielectric thickness changes, impedance and loss will change. In severe cases, transmission lines will have large loss. Impedance may vary from about 44 ohm to 54 ohm. The range can be as wide as 10 ohm.<\\\/p>

                Etch factor<\\\/h3>

                Conductors have finite thickness. After etch, traces are not perfect rectangles. They look closer to a trapezoid. The trapezoid angle changes with copper thickness (including plating). When copper is thin, the sidewall angle approaches 90\\u00b0. The angle size affects impedance. For example, when the sidewall angle is 70\\u00b0, impedance is about 50 ohm. When the angle is 90\\u00b0, impedance is about 48.37 ohm.<\\\/p>

                The above tests change one factor at a time. In real production, multiple variables change at once. Impedance can vary from about 40 ohm to 56 ohm. This far exceeds a typical requirement such as 50\\u03a9 \\u00b110%. During production, many parameters cause impedance change. For high-speed or high-end products, the PCB design and manufacturing process must strictly control every material and step. Otherwise, the product can show unexpected problems.<\\\/p>

                Impedance and characteristic impedance<\\\/h2>

                1. Resistance<\\\/h3>

                When an alternating current flows in a conductor, the opposition it meets is called impedance (Impedance). Symbol is Z. Unit is still ohm (\\u03a9). This opposition differs from DC resistance. In AC, besides resistance (R), there are inductive reactance (XL) and capacitive reactance (XC).<\\\/p>

                To distinguish from DC resistance, call the AC opposition impedance (Z).<\\\/p>

                The formula:<\\\/p>

                \\u00a0<\\\/div><\\\/div><\\\/div>
                Z<\\\/span> = \\u221a(R\\u00b2 + (XL \\u2212 XC)\\u00b2)
                \\n<\\\/code><\\\/div><\\\/div>

                2. Impedance (Z)<\\\/h3>

                With higher IC integration and higher signal frequency and speed, signals on PCB traces can be affected by the PCB trace itself. When signal frequency reaches a limit, the trace causes serious signal distortion or loss. This shows PCB traces carry not just current but energy in the form of pulses or square wave signals.<\\\/p>

                3. Characteristic impedance control (Z0)<\\\/h3>

                The opposition a signal sees when it travels is called characteristic impedance. Symbol is Z0.<\\\/p>

                So, fixing only \\\"open\\\", \\\"short\\\", and connectivity is not enough. For high speed and high frequency transmission lines, quality must be stricter. Passing an open\\\/short test or having small defects is not enough. You must measure Z0 and keep it within tolerance. If not, the board must be scrapped. Do not rework.<\\\/p>

                Signal propagation and transmission lines<\\\/h2>

                1. Definition of a signal transmission line<\\\/h3>

                1. From electromagnetic theory, shorter wavelength (\\u03bb) means higher frequency (f). Their product equals light speed. That is:<\\\/p><\\\/li><\\\/ol>

                  \\u00a0<\\\/div><\\\/div><\\\/div>
                  C<\\\/span> = \\u03bb \\u00b7 f = 3<\\\/span> \\u00d7 10<\\\/span>^10<\\\/span> cm\\\/s
                  \\n<\\\/code><\\\/div><\\\/div>

                  1. Any device may have a high signal frequency. After the signal travels through a PCB trace, the signal may slow or be delayed.<\\\/p><\\\/li><\\\/ol>

                    So, shorter trace length is better.<\\\/p>

                    1. Increasing wiring density or reducing wire size helps. But when component frequency becomes higher or pulse periods shorten, trace length may approach a portion of the signal wavelength. Then the trace will show obvious distortion.<\\\/p><\\\/li>

                    2. IPC-2141 clause 3.4.4 says: when a trace length approaches 1\\\/7 of the signal wavelength, the trace is treated as a signal transmission line.<\\\/p><\\\/li>

                    3. Example:<\\\/p><\\\/li><\\\/ol>

                      A device has signal frequency f = 10 MHz. PCB trace length is 50 cm. Do we need characteristic impedance control?<\\\/p>

                      Compute:<\\\/p>

                      \\u00a0<\\\/div><\\\/div><\\\/div>
                      C = \\u03bb \\u00b7 f = 3 \\u00d7 10^10 cm\\\/s
                      \\n\\u03bb = C \\\/ f = (3 \\u00d7 10^10 cm\\\/s) \\\/ (1 \\u00d7 10^7 \\\/s) = 3000 cm
                      \\ntrace length \\\/ wavelength = 50 \\\/ 3000 = 1\\\/60
                      \\n<\\\/code><\\\/div><\\\/div>

                      Because 1\\\/60 is much less than 1\\\/7, this trace is a normal wire and does not need characteristic impedance control.<\\\/p>

                      Maxwell's equations tell us: the propagation speed VS of a sine wave in a medium relates to light speed C and dielectric constant \\u03b5r as:<\\\/p>

                      \\u00a0<\\\/div><\\\/div><\\\/div>
                      VS<\\\/span> = C \\\/ \\u221a\\u03b5r
                      \\n<\\\/code><\\\/div><\\\/div>

                      When \\u03b5r = 1, signal speed equals light speed = 3 \\u00d7 10^10 cm\\\/s.<\\\/p>

                      2. Transmission speed and dielectric constant<\\\/h3>

                      Signal speed at 30 MHz for different materials:<\\\/p>

                      Material \\\/ Substrate<\\\/th>Tg (\\u00b0C)<\\\/th>Dielectric constant \\u03b5r<\\\/th>Signal speed (m\\\/\\u03bcs)<\\\/th><\\\/tr><\\\/thead>
                      Vacuum<\\\/td>\\\/<\\\/td>1.0<\\\/td>300.00<\\\/td><\\\/tr>
                      PTFE (Teflon)<\\\/td>\\\/<\\\/td>2.2<\\\/td>202.26<\\\/td><\\\/tr>
                      Thermoset polyphenylene ether<\\\/td>210<\\\/td>2.5<\\\/td>189.74<\\\/td><\\\/tr>
                      Cyanate ester<\\\/td>225<\\\/td>3.0<\\\/td>173.21<\\\/td><\\\/tr>
                      PTFE + E-glass<\\\/td>\\\/<\\\/td>2.6<\\\/td>186.25<\\\/td><\\\/tr>
                      Cyanate ester + glass<\\\/td>225<\\\/td>3.7<\\\/td>155.96<\\\/td><\\\/tr>
                      Polyimide + glass<\\\/td>230<\\\/td>4.5<\\\/td>141.42<\\\/td><\\\/tr>
                      Quartz<\\\/td>\\\/<\\\/td>3.9<\\\/td>151.98<\\\/td><\\\/tr>
                      Epoxy glass (fr4)<\\\/td>130\\u00b15<\\\/td>4.7<\\\/td>138.38<\\\/td><\\\/tr>
                      Aluminum<\\\/td>\\\/<\\\/td>9.0<\\\/td>100.00<\\\/td><\\\/tr><\\\/tbody><\\\/table><\\\/div><\\\/div>

                      The table shows: as \\u03b5r increases, signal speed in the material decreases. To get higher signal speed, choose higher characteristic impedance. To get higher Z0, choose lower \\u03b5r material. PTFE has the smallest \\u03b5r, so it gives the fastest speed.<\\\/p>

                      fr4 board uses epoxy resin plus E-glass. Its \\u03b5r is about 4.7. Signal speed is 138 m\\\/\\u03bcs. Changing the resin system can change \\u03b5r.<\\\/p>

                      Reasons to control characteristic impedance<\\\/h2>

                      Reason 1<\\\/h3>

                      When electronic equipment (computer, communications) runs, the driver sends a signal to the receiver through PCB traces. The characteristic impedance Z0 of the trace must match the driver and receiver electronic impedance. If matched, the signal energy transmits completely.<\\\/p>

                      Reason 2<\\\/h3>

                      If PCB quality is bad and Z0 is out of tolerance, signals will reflect, dissipate, attenuate, or delay. In severe cases, signals can be wrong and the device can crash.<\\\/p>

                      Reason 3<\\\/h3>

                      Strict material selection and process control are needed so multilayer board Z0 meets customer specs. Higher electronic impedance components usually need higher PCB Z0 to match. A multilayer board with correct Z0 is a qualified high-speed or high-frequency product.<\\\/p>

                      Relationship of Z0 to material and process<\\\/h2>

                      The microstrip characteristic impedance Z0 formula:<\\\/p>

                      \\u00a0<\\\/div><\\\/div><\\\/div>
                      Z0<\\\/span> = 87<\\\/span> \\\/ \\u221a\\u03b5r + 1.41<\\\/span> \\u00b7 ln [ 5.98<\\\/span> H \\\/ (0.8<\\\/span> W + T) ]
                      \\n<\\\/code><\\\/div><\\\/div>

                      Where:<\\\/p>

                      • \\u03b5r \\u2014 dielectric constant<\\\/p><\\\/li>

                      • H \\u2014 dielectric thickness<\\\/p><\\\/li>

                      • W \\u2014 trace width<\\\/p><\\\/li>

                      • T \\u2014 trace thickness<\\\/p><\\\/li><\\\/ul>

                        Lower \\u03b5r makes it easier to raise Z0 to match high-speed components.<\\\/p>

                        1. Z0 and \\u03b5r<\\\/h3>

                        Z0 is inversely related to \\u03b5r. Z0 increases as H increases. For strict Z0 high-frequency lines, dielectric thickness tolerance must be strict. Usually dielectric thickness change must not exceed 10%.<\\\/p>

                        2. Dielectric thickness effect<\\\/h3>

                        With higher routing density, larger H leads to more electromagnetic interference. For high-frequency and high-speed digital lines, as conductor density rises, reduce dielectric thickness to lower EMI and crosstalk, or use materials with lower \\u03b5r.<\\\/p>

                        From the formula, copper thickness T is an important factor. Larger T lowers Z0, but the change is small.<\\\/p>

                        3. Copper thickness effect<\\\/h3>

                        Thinner copper gives higher Z0, but its effect on Z0 is small. Using thin copper helps make fine traces and this helps control Z0 more than the copper thickness value alone.<\\\/p>

                        From the formula:<\\\/p>

                        \\u00a0<\\\/div><\\\/div><\\\/div>
                        Z0<\\\/span> = 87<\\\/span> \\\/ \\u221a\\u03b5r + 1.41<\\\/span> \\u00b7 ln [ 5.98<\\\/span> H \\\/ (0.8<\\\/span> W + T) ]
                        \\n<\\\/code><\\\/div><\\\/div>

                        As W (trace width) decreases, Z0 increases. Changing width has a larger impact on Z0 than changing thickness.<\\\/p>

                        4. Trace width effect<\\\/h3>

                        Z0 increases sharply as width W narrows. To control Z0, control trace width tightly. Today most high-frequency and high-speed digital traces have widths like 0.10 mm or 0.13 mm. Traditionally, width tolerance was \\u00b120%. For non-transmission line traces (trace length << signal wavelength \\\/ 7), \\u00b120% may be fine. But for Z0 controlled traces, \\u00b120% width error cannot meet requirements. At that point Z0 error often exceeds \\u00b110%.<\\\/p>

                        Example:<\\\/p>

                        A PCB microstrip has width 100 \\u03bcm, thickness 20 \\u03bcm, dielectric thickness 100 \\u03bcm. Assume copper thickness is uniform. If width changes \\u00b120%, can Z0 meet \\u00b110%?<\\\/p>

                        By formula:<\\\/p>

                        Let W0 = 100 \\u03bcm, W1 = 80 \\u03bcm, W2 = 120 \\u03bcm, T = 20 \\u03bcm, H = 100 \\u03bcm. Then Z01 \\\/ Z02 = 1.20. So Z0 just reaches \\u00b110%, not within \\u00b110%. To get Z0 within \\u00b110%, width variation must be much smaller than \\u00b120%. To get Z0 \\u2264 \\u00b15%, width tolerance must be \\u2264 \\u00b110%.<\\\/p>

                        This explains why some PTFE PCBs and some fr4 PCBs require width tolerance \\u00b10.02 mm. The reason is to control Z0.<\\\/p>

                        Process controls for characteristic impedance<\\\/h2>

                        1. Film making control and inspection<\\\/strong>
                          Keep constant temperature and humidity (21\\u00b12\\u00b0C, 55\\u00b15%), keep a clean room, and do width process compensation.<\\\/p><\\\/li>

                        2. Panel design<\\\/strong>
                          Panel edges should not be too narrow. Make plating uniform. Use pseudo-cathode in electroplating to distribute current. Add a coupon on the panel edge to test Z0.<\\\/p><\\\/li>

                        3. Etching<\\\/strong>
                          Control process parameters to reduce undercut. Do first-pass inspection. Reduce residual copper, copper burrs, and copper scraps. Check trace width and keep it within required range (\\u00b110% or \\u00b10.02 mm).<\\\/p><\\\/li>

                        4. AOI inspection<\\\/strong>
                          For inner layers, find trace gaps and protrusions. For 2 GHz high-speed signals, even a 0.05 mm gap must cause board scrap. Controlling inner layer width and defects is key.<\\\/p><\\\/li>

                        5. Lamination<\\\/strong>
                          Use vacuum lamination to lower pressure and reduce resin flow. Keep more resin because resin affects \\u03b5r. More resin often lowers \\u03b5r. Control lamination thickness tolerance. If finished board thickness is uneven, dielectric thickness varies and affects Z0.<\\\/p><\\\/li>

                        6. Select good base material<\\\/strong>
                          Strictly follow customer material model. Wrong model means wrong \\u03b5r, wrong thickness. A full process done with wrong material still results in scrap because Z0 depends strongly on \\u03b5r.<\\\/p><\\\/li>

                        7. Solder mask (coverlay)<\\\/strong>
                          Solder mask on the board surface can lower Z0 by 1\\u20133 \\u03a9. In theory, solder mask thickness should not be too thick. In practice the effect is not huge. Before solder mask, the conductor surface interfaces with air (\\u03b5r = 1) so measured Z0 is higher. After solder mask, Z0 drops 1\\u20133 \\u03a9 because solder mask \\u03b5r is about 4.0.<\\\/p><\\\/li>

                        8. Moisture absorption<\\\/strong>
                          Avoid moisture absorption in finished multilayer boards. Water has \\u03b5r \\u2248 75. Moisture causes large Z0 drop and instability.<\\\/p><\\\/li><\\\/ol>

                          Summary<\\\/h2>

                          For multilayer board transmission lines, common Z0 control ranges are:<\\\/p>

                          • 50 \\u03a9 \\u00b110%<\\\/p><\\\/li>

                          • 75 \\u03a9 \\u00b110%<\\\/p><\\\/li>

                          • 28 \\u03a9 \\u00b110%<\\\/p><\\\/li><\\\/ul>

                            To control variation, consider these four main factors:<\\\/p>

                            1. Trace width W<\\\/p><\\\/li>

                            2. Trace thickness T<\\\/p><\\\/li>

                            3. Dielectric thickness H<\\\/p><\\\/li>

                            4. Dielectric constant \\u03b5r<\\\/p><\\\/li><\\\/ol>

                              The largest influence is dielectric thickness H. Next is dielectric constant \\u03b5r. Then trace width W. The smallest is trace thickness T. After choosing base material, \\u03b5r change is small. H can be controlled but still varies. T is easier to control. Controlling trace width W within \\u00b110% is hard. Trace issues like pinholes, gaps, and dents also matter. In many ways, the most effective and important method to control Z0 is to control and adjust trace width precisely.<\\\/p>\",\"display_condition_list\":[{\"display_condition_login_status\":\"subscriber\",\"_id\":\"ee6d0f7\"}]},\"elements\":[],\"widgetType\":\"text-editor\"}],\"isInner\":false}]"],"_elementor_conditions":["a:0:{}"],"_edit_last":["1"],"_astra_content_layout_flag":["disabled"],"ast-title-bar-display":["disabled"],"_elementor_version":["3.31.2"],"_elementor_pro_version":["3.31.2"],"_wp_page_template":["default"],"_elementor_page_settings":["a:1:{s:10:\"hide_title\";s:3:\"yes\";}"],"rank_math_internal_links_processed":["1"],"rank_math_news_sitemap_robots":["index"],"rank_math_robots":["a:1:{i:0;s:5:\"index\";}"],"rank_math_seo_score":["30"],"rank_math_focus_keyword":["Impedance Control"],"site-post-title":["disabled"],"_uag_page_assets":["a:9:{s:3:\"css\";s:30185:\".uag-blocks-common-selector{z-index:var(--z-index-desktop) !important}@media (max-width: 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                              \\n\\t\\t[elementor-element k=\\\"0e46bd9387093ca73b9000e38f18cce4\\\" 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ufacturing instability that changes the trace width will change impedance. From experience with many factories, trace width may vary about 10%. We can model trace width change as a Gaussian distribution with a standard deviation of 10%.<\/p><h3 data-start=\"3122\" data-end=\"3162\">Copper foil \/ plated copper thickness<\/h3><p data-start=\"3164\" data-end=\"3628\">In PCB products, copper thickness has two parts: base copper thickness and plated copper thickness. Base copper is relatively uniform, but plated copper uniformity depends on factory process. Plated copper may vary a lot between factories. Different plated copper thickness will change trace impedance and loss. Impedance may vary in a small range, for example between 49.5 and 51 ohm. Compared with trace width, copper thickness has a smaller effect on impedance.<\/p><h3 data-start=\"3630\" data-end=\"3653\">Dielectric thickness<\/h3><p data-start=\"3655\" data-end=\"3983\">In PCB manufacture, dielectric thickness changes come from raw material variation, lamination pressure, and glue filling. If dielectric thickness changes, impedance and loss will change. In severe cases, transmission lines will have large loss. Impedance may vary from about 44 ohm to 54 ohm. The range can be as wide as 10 ohm.<\/p><h3 data-start=\"3985\" data-end=\"3999\">Etch factor<\/h3><p data-start=\"4001\" data-end=\"4400\">Conductors have finite thickness. After etch, traces are not perfect rectangles. They look closer to a trapezoid. The trapezoid angle changes with copper thickness (including plating). When copper is thin, the sidewall angle approaches 90\u00b0. The angle size affects impedance. For example, when the sidewall angle is 70\u00b0, impedance is about 50 ohm. When the angle is 90\u00b0, impedance is about 48.37 ohm.<\/p><p data-start=\"4402\" data-end=\"4843\">The above tests change one factor at a time. In real production, multiple variables change at once. Impedance can vary from about 40 ohm to 56 ohm. This far exceeds a typical requirement such as 50\u03a9 \u00b110%. During production, many parameters cause impedance change. For high-speed or high-end products, the PCB design and manufacturing process must strictly control every material and step. Otherwise, the product can show unexpected problems.<\/p><hr data-start=\"4845\" data-end=\"4848\" \/><h2 data-start=\"4850\" data-end=\"4890\">Impedance and characteristic impedance<\/h2><h3 data-start=\"4892\" data-end=\"4908\">1. Resistance<\/h3><p data-start=\"4910\" data-end=\"5193\">When an alternating current flows in a conductor, the opposition it meets is called impedance (Impedance). Symbol is Z. Unit is still ohm (\u03a9). This opposition differs from DC resistance. In AC, besides resistance (R), there are inductive reactance (XL) and capacitive reactance (XC).<\/p><p data-start=\"5195\" data-end=\"5267\">To distinguish from DC resistance, call the AC opposition impedance (Z).<\/p><p data-start=\"5269\" data-end=\"5281\">The formula:<\/p><div class=\"contain-inline-size rounded-2xl relative bg-token-sidebar-surface-primary\"><div class=\"sticky top-9\"><div class=\"absolute end-0 bottom-0 flex h-9 items-center pe-2\"><div class=\"bg-token-bg-elevated-secondary text-token-text-secondary flex items-center gap-4 rounded-sm px-2 font-sans text-xs\">\u00a0<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"overflow-y-auto p-4\" dir=\"ltr\"><code class=\"whitespace-pre!\"><span class=\"hljs-attr\">Z<\/span> = \u221a(R\u00b2 + (XL \u2212 XC)\u00b2)<br \/>\n<\/code><\/div><\/div><h3 data-start=\"5315\" data-end=\"5334\">2. Impedance (Z)<\/h3><p data-start=\"5336\" data-end=\"5657\">With higher IC integration and higher signal frequency and speed, signals on PCB traces can be affected by the PCB trace itself. When signal frequency reaches a limit, the trace causes serious signal distortion or loss. This shows PCB traces carry not just current but energy in the form of pulses or square wave signals.<\/p><h3 data-start=\"5659\" data-end=\"5702\">3. Characteristic impedance control (Z0)<\/h3><p data-start=\"5704\" data-end=\"5798\">The opposition a signal sees when it travels is called characteristic impedance. Symbol is Z0.<\/p><p data-start=\"5800\" data-end=\"6111\">So, fixing only \"open\", \"short\", and connectivity is not enough. For high speed and high frequency transmission lines, quality must be stricter. Passing an open\/short test or having small defects is not enough. You must measure Z0 and keep it within tolerance. If not, the board must be scrapped. Do not rework.<\/p><hr data-start=\"6113\" data-end=\"6116\" \/><h2 data-start=\"6118\" data-end=\"6161\">Signal propagation and transmission lines<\/h2><h3 data-start=\"6163\" data-end=\"6209\">1. Definition of a signal transmission line<\/h3><ol data-start=\"6211\" data-end=\"6336\"><li data-start=\"6211\" data-end=\"6336\"><p data-start=\"6214\" data-end=\"6336\">From electromagnetic theory, shorter wavelength (\u03bb) means higher frequency (f). Their product equals light speed. That is:<\/p><\/li><\/ol><div class=\"contain-inline-size rounded-2xl relative bg-token-sidebar-surface-primary\"><div class=\"sticky top-9\"><div class=\"absolute end-0 bottom-0 flex h-9 items-center pe-2\"><div class=\"bg-token-bg-elevated-secondary text-token-text-secondary flex items-center gap-4 rounded-sm px-2 font-sans text-xs\">\u00a0<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"overflow-y-auto p-4\" dir=\"ltr\"><code class=\"whitespace-pre!\"><span class=\"hljs-attr\">C<\/span> = \u03bb \u00b7 f = <span class=\"hljs-number\">3<\/span> \u00d7 <span class=\"hljs-number\">10<\/span>^<span class=\"hljs-number\">10<\/span> cm\/s<br \/>\n<\/code><\/div><\/div><ol start=\"2\" data-start=\"6374\" data-end=\"6502\"><li data-start=\"6374\" data-end=\"6502\"><p data-start=\"6377\" data-end=\"6502\">Any device may have a high signal frequency. After the signal travels through a PCB trace, the signal may slow or be delayed.<\/p><\/li><\/ol><p data-start=\"6504\" data-end=\"6539\">So, shorter trace length is better.<\/p><ol start=\"3\" data-start=\"6541\" data-end=\"6933\"><li data-start=\"6541\" data-end=\"6775\"><p data-start=\"6544\" data-end=\"6775\">Increasing wiring density or reducing wire size helps. But when component frequency becomes higher or pulse periods shorten, trace length may approach a portion of the signal wavelength. Then the trace will show obvious distortion.<\/p><\/li><li data-start=\"6777\" data-end=\"6920\"><p data-start=\"6780\" data-end=\"6920\">IPC-2141 clause 3.4.4 says: when a trace length approaches 1\/7 of the signal wavelength, the trace is treated as a signal transmission line.<\/p><\/li><li data-start=\"6922\" data-end=\"6933\"><p data-start=\"6925\" data-end=\"6933\">Example:<\/p><\/li><\/ol><p data-start=\"6935\" data-end=\"7048\">A device has signal frequency f = 10 MHz. PCB trace length is 50 cm. Do we need characteristic impedance control?<\/p><p data-start=\"7050\" data-end=\"7058\">Compute:<\/p><div class=\"contain-inline-size rounded-2xl relative bg-token-sidebar-surface-primary\"><div class=\"sticky top-9\"><div class=\"absolute end-0 bottom-0 flex h-9 items-center pe-2\"><div class=\"bg-token-bg-elevated-secondary text-token-text-secondary flex items-center gap-4 rounded-sm px-2 font-sans text-xs\">\u00a0<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"overflow-y-auto p-4\" dir=\"ltr\"><code class=\"whitespace-pre!\">C = \u03bb \u00b7 f = 3 \u00d7 10^10 cm\/s<br \/>\n\u03bb = C \/ f = (3 \u00d7 10^10 cm\/s) \/ (1 \u00d7 10^7 \/s) = 3000 cm<br \/>\ntrace length \/ wavelength = 50 \/ 3000 = 1\/60<br \/>\n<\/code><\/div><\/div><p data-start=\"7196\" data-end=\"7311\">Because 1\/60 is much less than 1\/7, this trace is a normal wire and does not need characteristic impedance control.<\/p><p data-start=\"7313\" data-end=\"7449\">Maxwell's equations tell us: the propagation speed VS of a sine wave in a medium relates to light speed C and dielectric constant \u03b5r as:<\/p><div class=\"contain-inline-size rounded-2xl relative bg-token-sidebar-surface-primary\"><div class=\"sticky top-9\"><div class=\"absolute end-0 bottom-0 flex h-9 items-center pe-2\"><div class=\"bg-token-bg-elevated-secondary text-token-text-secondary flex items-center gap-4 rounded-sm px-2 font-sans text-xs\">\u00a0<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"overflow-y-auto p-4\" dir=\"ltr\"><code class=\"whitespace-pre!\"><span class=\"hljs-attr\">VS<\/span> = C \/ \u221a\u03b5r<br \/>\n<\/code><\/div><\/div><p data-start=\"7473\" data-end=\"7535\">When \u03b5r = 1, signal speed equals light speed = 3 \u00d7 10^10 cm\/s.<\/p><h3 data-start=\"7537\" data-end=\"7585\">2. Transmission speed and dielectric constant<\/h3><p data-start=\"7587\" data-end=\"7634\">Signal speed at 30 MHz for different materials:<\/p><div class=\"_tableContainer_1rjym_1\"><div class=\"_tableWrapper_1rjym_13 group flex w-fit flex-col-reverse\" tabindex=\"-1\"><table class=\"w-fit min-w-(--thread-content-width)\" data-start=\"7636\" data-end=\"8134\"><thead data-start=\"7636\" data-end=\"7717\"><tr data-start=\"7636\" data-end=\"7717\"><th data-start=\"7636\" data-end=\"7659\" data-col-size=\"sm\">Material \/ Substrate<\/th><th data-start=\"7659\" data-end=\"7669\" data-col-size=\"sm\">Tg (\u00b0C)<\/th><th data-start=\"7669\" data-end=\"7694\" data-col-size=\"sm\">Dielectric constant \u03b5r<\/th><th data-start=\"7694\" data-end=\"7717\" data-col-size=\"sm\">Signal speed (m\/\u03bcs)<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody data-start=\"7739\" data-end=\"8134\"><tr data-start=\"7739\" data-end=\"7768\"><td data-start=\"7739\" data-end=\"7748\" data-col-size=\"sm\">Vacuum<\/td><td data-start=\"7748\" data-end=\"7752\" data-col-size=\"sm\">\/<\/td><td data-start=\"7752\" data-end=\"7758\" data-col-size=\"sm\">1.0<\/td><td data-start=\"7758\" data-end=\"7768\" data-col-size=\"sm\">300.00<\/td><\/tr><tr data-start=\"7769\" data-end=\"7805\"><td data-start=\"7769\" data-end=\"7785\" data-col-size=\"sm\">PTFE (Teflon)<\/td><td data-start=\"7785\" data-end=\"7789\" data-col-size=\"sm\">\/<\/td><td data-start=\"7789\" data-end=\"7795\" data-col-size=\"sm\">2.2<\/td><td data-start=\"7795\" data-end=\"7805\" data-col-size=\"sm\">202.26<\/td><\/tr><tr data-start=\"7806\" data-end=\"7860\"><td data-start=\"7806\" data-end=\"7838\" data-col-size=\"sm\">Thermoset polyphenylene ether<\/td><td data-start=\"7838\" data-end=\"7844\" data-col-size=\"sm\">210<\/td><td data-start=\"7844\" data-end=\"7850\" data-col-size=\"sm\">2.5<\/td><td data-start=\"7850\" data-end=\"7860\" data-col-size=\"sm\">189.74<\/td><\/tr><tr data-start=\"7861\" data-end=\"7899\"><td data-start=\"7861\" data-end=\"7877\" data-col-size=\"sm\">Cyanate ester<\/td><td data-start=\"7877\" data-end=\"7883\" data-col-size=\"sm\">225<\/td><td data-start=\"7883\" data-end=\"7889\" data-col-size=\"sm\">3.0<\/td><td data-start=\"7889\" data-end=\"7899\" data-col-size=\"sm\">173.21<\/td><\/tr><tr data-start=\"7900\" data-end=\"7937\"><td data-start=\"7900\" data-end=\"7917\" data-col-size=\"sm\">PTFE + E-glass<\/td><td data-start=\"7917\" data-end=\"7921\" data-col-size=\"sm\">\/<\/td><td data-start=\"7921\" data-end=\"7927\" data-col-size=\"sm\">2.6<\/td><td data-start=\"7927\" data-end=\"7937\" data-col-size=\"sm\">186.25<\/td><\/tr><tr data-start=\"7938\" data-end=\"7984\"><td data-start=\"7938\" data-end=\"7962\" data-col-size=\"sm\">Cyanate ester + glass<\/td><td data-start=\"7962\" data-end=\"7968\" data-col-size=\"sm\">225<\/td><td data-start=\"7968\" data-end=\"7974\" data-col-size=\"sm\">3.7<\/td><td data-start=\"7974\" data-end=\"7984\" data-col-size=\"sm\">155.96<\/td><\/tr><tr data-start=\"7985\" data-end=\"8027\"><td data-start=\"7985\" data-end=\"8005\" data-col-size=\"sm\">Polyimide + glass<\/td><td data-start=\"8005\" data-end=\"8011\" data-col-size=\"sm\">230<\/td><td data-start=\"8011\" data-end=\"8017\" data-col-size=\"sm\">4.5<\/td><td data-start=\"8017\" data-end=\"8027\" data-col-size=\"sm\">141.42<\/td><\/tr><tr data-start=\"8028\" data-end=\"8057\"><td data-start=\"8028\" data-end=\"8037\" data-col-size=\"sm\">Quartz<\/td><td data-start=\"8037\" data-end=\"8041\" data-col-size=\"sm\">\/<\/td><td data-start=\"8041\" data-end=\"8047\" data-col-size=\"sm\">3.9<\/td><td data-start=\"8047\" data-end=\"8057\" data-col-size=\"sm\">151.98<\/td><\/tr><tr data-start=\"8058\" data-end=\"8102\"><td data-start=\"8058\" data-end=\"8078\" data-col-size=\"sm\">Epoxy glass (fr4)<\/td><td data-start=\"8078\" data-end=\"8086\" data-col-size=\"sm\">130\u00b15<\/td><td data-start=\"8086\" data-end=\"8092\" data-col-size=\"sm\">4.7<\/td><td data-start=\"8092\" data-end=\"8102\" data-col-size=\"sm\">138.38<\/td><\/tr><tr data-start=\"8103\" data-end=\"8134\"><td data-start=\"8103\" data-end=\"8114\" data-col-size=\"sm\">Aluminum<\/td><td data-start=\"8114\" data-end=\"8118\" data-col-size=\"sm\">\/<\/td><td data-start=\"8118\" data-end=\"8124\" data-col-size=\"sm\">9.0<\/td><td data-start=\"8124\" data-end=\"8134\" data-col-size=\"sm\">100.00<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/div><\/div><p data-start=\"8136\" data-end=\"8378\">The table shows: as \u03b5r increases, signal speed in the material decreases. To get higher signal speed, choose higher characteristic impedance. To get higher Z0, choose lower \u03b5r material. PTFE has the smallest \u03b5r, so it gives the fastest speed.<\/p><p data-start=\"8380\" data-end=\"8508\">fr4 board uses epoxy resin plus E-glass. Its \u03b5r is about 4.7. Signal speed is 138 m\/\u03bcs. Changing the resin system can change \u03b5r.<\/p><hr data-start=\"8510\" data-end=\"8513\" \/><h2 data-start=\"8515\" data-end=\"8560\">Reasons to control characteristic impedance<\/h2><h3 data-start=\"8562\" data-end=\"8573\">Reason 1<\/h3><p data-start=\"8575\" data-end=\"8849\">When electronic equipment (computer, communications) runs, the driver sends a signal to the receiver through PCB traces. The characteristic impedance Z0 of the trace must match the driver and receiver electronic impedance. If matched, the signal energy transmits completely.<\/p><h3 data-start=\"8851\" data-end=\"8862\">Reason 2<\/h3><p data-start=\"8864\" data-end=\"9031\">If PCB quality is bad and Z0 is out of tolerance, signals will reflect, dissipate, attenuate, or delay. In severe cases, signals can be wrong and the device can crash.<\/p><h3 data-start=\"9033\" data-end=\"9044\">Reason 3<\/h3><p data-start=\"9046\" data-end=\"9311\">Strict material selection and process control are needed so multilayer board Z0 meets customer specs. Higher electronic impedance components usually need higher PCB Z0 to match. A multilayer board with correct Z0 is a qualified high-speed or high-frequency product.<\/p><hr data-start=\"9313\" data-end=\"9316\" \/><h2 data-start=\"9318\" data-end=\"9362\">Relationship of Z0 to material and process<\/h2><p data-start=\"9364\" data-end=\"9415\">The microstrip characteristic impedance Z0 formula:<\/p><div class=\"contain-inline-size rounded-2xl relative bg-token-sidebar-surface-primary\"><div class=\"sticky top-9\"><div class=\"absolute end-0 bottom-0 flex h-9 items-center pe-2\"><div class=\"bg-token-bg-elevated-secondary text-token-text-secondary flex items-center gap-4 rounded-sm px-2 font-sans text-xs\">\u00a0<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"overflow-y-auto p-4\" dir=\"ltr\"><code class=\"whitespace-pre!\"><span class=\"hljs-attr\">Z0<\/span> = <span class=\"hljs-number\">87<\/span> \/ \u221a\u03b5r + <span class=\"hljs-number\">1.41<\/span> \u00b7 ln [ <span class=\"hljs-number\">5.98<\/span> H \/ (<span class=\"hljs-number\">0.8<\/span> W + T) ]<br \/>\n<\/code><\/div><\/div><p data-start=\"9477\" data-end=\"9483\">Where:<\/p><ul data-start=\"9485\" data-end=\"9584\"><li data-start=\"9485\" data-end=\"9513\"><p data-start=\"9487\" data-end=\"9513\">\u03b5r \u2014 dielectric constant<\/p><\/li><li data-start=\"9514\" data-end=\"9542\"><p data-start=\"9516\" data-end=\"9542\">H \u2014 dielectric thickness<\/p><\/li><li data-start=\"9543\" data-end=\"9562\"><p data-start=\"9545\" data-end=\"9562\">W \u2014 trace width<\/p><\/li><li data-start=\"9563\" data-end=\"9584\"><p data-start=\"9565\" data-end=\"9584\">T \u2014 trace thickness<\/p><\/li><\/ul><p data-start=\"9586\" data-end=\"9654\">Lower \u03b5r makes it easier to raise Z0 to match high-speed components.<\/p><h3 data-start=\"9656\" data-end=\"9671\">1. Z0 and \u03b5r<\/h3><p data-start=\"9673\" data-end=\"9872\">Z0 is inversely related to \u03b5r. Z0 increases as H increases. For strict Z0 high-frequency lines, dielectric thickness tolerance must be strict. Usually dielectric thickness change must not exceed 10%.<\/p><h3 data-start=\"9874\" data-end=\"9907\">2. Dielectric thickness effect<\/h3><p data-start=\"9909\" data-end=\"10155\">With higher routing density, larger H leads to more electromagnetic interference. For high-frequency and high-speed digital lines, as conductor density rises, reduce dielectric thickness to lower EMI and crosstalk, or use materials with lower \u03b5r.<\/p><p data-start=\"10157\" data-end=\"10262\">From the formula, copper thickness T is an important factor. Larger T lowers Z0, but the change is small.<\/p><h3 data-start=\"10264\" data-end=\"10293\">3. Copper thickness effect<\/h3><p data-start=\"10295\" data-end=\"10468\">Thinner copper gives higher Z0, but its effect on Z0 is small. Using thin copper helps make fine traces and this helps control Z0 more than the copper thickness value alone.<\/p><p data-start=\"10470\" data-end=\"10487\">From the formula:<\/p><div class=\"contain-inline-size rounded-2xl relative bg-token-sidebar-surface-primary\"><div class=\"sticky top-9\"><div class=\"absolute end-0 bottom-0 flex h-9 items-center pe-2\"><div class=\"bg-token-bg-elevated-secondary text-token-text-secondary flex items-center gap-4 rounded-sm px-2 font-sans text-xs\">\u00a0<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"overflow-y-auto p-4\" dir=\"ltr\"><code class=\"whitespace-pre!\"><span class=\"hljs-attr\">Z0<\/span> = <span class=\"hljs-number\">87<\/span> \/ \u221a\u03b5r + <span class=\"hljs-number\">1.41<\/span> \u00b7 ln [ <span class=\"hljs-number\">5.98<\/span> H \/ (<span class=\"hljs-number\">0.8<\/span> W + T) ]<br \/>\n<\/code><\/div><\/div><p data-start=\"10549\" data-end=\"10658\">As W (trace width) decreases, Z0 increases. Changing width has a larger impact on Z0 than changing thickness.<\/p><h3 data-start=\"10660\" data-end=\"10684\">4. Trace width effect<\/h3><p data-start=\"10686\" data-end=\"11112\">Z0 increases sharply as width W narrows. To control Z0, control trace width tightly. Today most high-frequency and high-speed digital traces have widths like 0.10 mm or 0.13 mm. Traditionally, width tolerance was \u00b120%. For non-transmission line traces (trace length &lt;&lt; sign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